Flowers brighten up rooms, beautify gardens, make excellent gifts, and much more. It is hard to imagine life without these beautiful splashes of color dotting landscapes and yards, and a well-manicured lawn dotted with flowers of all kinds is one of the best ways to increase a home’s resale value and also its beauty. This resource is designed to give information on the most popular flowers in North America. Growing tips, history of cultivation, pest control, and other important facts are accessible for the flower categories below via the provided links.
Daffodils
• American Daffodil Society — The American Daffodil Society promotes knowledge about daffodils and their cultivation in the United States.
• Daffodil Festivals and Fields — Readers can find a daffodil festival in their locale on this page.
• Daffodil Plant Care Guides — The National Gardening Association hosts this guide to caring for daffodils.
• Daffodils Post-Harvest Quality — Although designed for commercial flower sellers, this page has a lot of good advice for anyone who wants to maintain the quality of daffodils after they have been harvested.
• Daffodils: Unique and Fragrant — Learn how to choose, plant, and tend daffodils on this page from Colorado State University.
• DaffSeek — DaffSeek is a searchable database of daffodil photographs sponsored by the American Daffodil Society.
• Narcissus — Daffodil is the common name for the narcissus, and this site has many details about these flowers.
• Spring Flowering Bulbs: Daffodils — The University of Missouri Extension hosts this good page on daffodils.
Daisies
• Alternative Field Crops: Sunflowers — Sunflowers are members of the daisy family, and this fact sheet has a lot of information about them.
• Aster Leafhopper — The aster leafhopper is a common blight upon asters and other members of the daisy family of flowers.
• Bellis Perennis — The USDA has this good, informative page on the common daisy.
• Gerbera Daisy — Some very brief information on caring for Gerbera Daisies can be found on this site from the University of Hawaii.
• Great Plains Nature Center: Sunflowers — Here is an excellent overview of sunflowers, which are members of the daisy family.
• Greenhouse Production of Gerbera Daisies — This page has information on growing Gerbera Daisies in greenhouses.
• Growing and Caring for Aster Flowers — This page details the proper care of aster flowers, which are also part of the daisy family of flowers.
• Oxeye Daisy — Some consider it a beautiful flower, some think it is a weed, but this page gives unbiased information on the oxeye daisy.
Irises
• The American Iris Society — The American Iris Society is dedicated to the cultivation of irises.
• Caring for Your Iris — This page from the University of Illinois Extension has a few basic tips for caring for your irises well over time.
• Iris for Northern Gardens — The University of Minnesota offers advice on irises that are ideally suited for gardens in the northern United States.
• Managing Pests in the Garden: Irises — This site offers nearly anything a reader would want to know about controlling pests that afflict irises.
• NDSU: Iris — North Dakota State University hosts this informative factsheet on the iris.
• Our Native Irises — The U.S. Department of Agriculture has this excellent site on the irises native to the United States.
• Questions on Iris — A variety of questions about iris plants are answered on this page.
• Reblooming Iris: New Jersey — This page has some good information on the reblooming irises of New Jersey.
Lilies
• Growing Lilies — The information on this page is geared toward those who want to grow lilies in Alaska, but its information can be applied in a variety of settings.
• Lilium Breeding — This Holland-based website has a lot of information about breeding and caring for lilies.
• Lily Leaf Beetle — The University of Maine has some good information on this common pest that attacks lilies and how one may guard against it.
• Mike's Backyard Garden: Lilies — Readers can find a general overview about lilies on this helpful page.
• North American Lily Society — The North American Lily Society is dedicated to lilies and lily care in North America.
• Planting and Care of Lilies — Some more extensive information on planting and taking care of lilies can be found via this link.
• Planting and Caring for Lilies — Martha Stewart has some good tips on planting lilies and taking care of them after they have been cut for vases.
• The True Lilies — On this page, readers can learn how to differentiate true lilies from those flowers often mistaken as lilies.
Orchids
• American Orchid Society — The American Orchid Society is dedicated to educating people about and caring for orchids properly.
• Internet Orchid Species Photo Encyclopedia — Readers can view photos of all the various orchid species on this site.
• Obsession with Orchids — Here is official companion site to the PBS Nature program on orchids.
• Orchid Care for the Novice — Inexperienced orchid caretakers can learn much about properly tending orchids on this site.
• Orchid Mania — This site that helps raise money for AIDS research, education, and prevention also has good information on the proper care of orchids.
• Orchid Pests and Diseases — Learn all about the pests and diseases that afflict orchids and how to treat them on this page from the St. Augustine Orchid Society.
• Orchids as Houseplants —This is a brief primer on tending orchids as houseplants.
• U.S. Cites: Orchids — Efforts to protect endangered orchids from over-cultivation are detailed here.
Peonies
• Growing Fine Peonies Almost Anywhere — Hollingsworth Nursery offers many tips for growing and caring for peonies.
• Heartland Peony Society — The Heartland Peony Society is a Midwestern floral society dedicated to peonies.
• Learn about Peonies — A well-known peony nursery gives much information about the peony flower.
• NYBG: Peonies — The New York Botanical Garden has pictures and descriptions of peonies on this page.
• Peonies for the Home Landscape — Learn how to choose and grow peonies on this page.
• Peonies in Alaska — This informative page describes peonies that one may find in Alaska.
• Peony Fact Sheet — The University of Rhode Island has a good fact sheet on peonies here.
• Peony Health Problems — The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station details several common problems that afflict peonies and recommends solutions.
Rhododendron
• American Rhododendron Society — The American Rhododendron Society encourages education about and the promotion of rhododendrons.
• Caring for Rhododendrons — Learn how to care for rhododendrons on this informative page from the Master Gardeners
• Henning’s Rhododendron and Azalea Pages — Here is a good overview site that is filled with information about rhododendrons.
• Rhododendron Borer — The Rhododendron Borer is a pest that afflicts Rhododendrons in Pennsylvania and elsewhere.
• Rhododendron PJM Hybrids — Readers can find all sorts of good information on a specific rhododendron cultivar on this page.
• Rhododendron Prunifolium — Rhododendron Prunifolium is a Rhododendron species that is found in Georgia and Alabama.
• Rhododendron Species Foundation and Botanical Garden — This non-profit organization is dedicated to informing the public about the care and conservation of rhododendrons.
• The Virtual Rhododendron Garden — The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill has this site with pictures and other information about rhododendrons.
Roses
• All-America Rose Selections — This is a “non-profit association of rose growers and introducers dedicated to the introduction and promotion of exceptional roses.”
• American Rose Society — The American Rose Society is a group of rose aficionados with a lot of good advice on growing roses and more.
• Caring for Roses — In addition to caring for roses, this page from the University of Vermont Extension has information on tending other plants.
• Proper Flower Cutting — Readers will learn about the importance of cutting rosebushes properly on this site.
• Roses Require Thought and Planning — Some important things to keep in mind about choosing and growing roses can be found via this link.
• Rose Selection, Planning, and Care — LSU offers a free page on choosing, planting, and caring for roses on this site.
• The Wild Rose — Iowa’s state flower is the wild rose, and this page from Iowa State University has a lot of information about it.
• World Federation of Rose Societies — The World Federation of Rose Societies can help readers learn about roses that exist all across the planet.
Tulips
• How to Grow Bulbs — Gardeners can find out how to grow all types of bulbs, including tulip bulbs, on this site.
• NCSU: Tulips — North Carolina State University provides this excellent overview of tulips, along with pictures of the flowers.
• Organic Gardening: Tulips — Here is a basic introduction to growing tulips tht includes links to other articles on the flowers.
• Planting Tulips for Spring — Here is some good advice on when to plant tulips for spring flowering.
• Tulipmania — Learn about how the crash of the tulip market in Holland in the seventeenth century was one of the first examples of excessive stock speculation.
• Tulip Pests — The University of California has this guide to pest management and tulips.
• Tulips History — The University of Minnesota James Ford Bell Library offers this page on the history of the cultivation of tulips.
• Tulips and Their Care — Here is a good site with lots of information about tulips and properly caring for them.
Photosynthesis is derived from the Greek photo, meaning “light”, and synthesis, which means “putting together”. It is a process that allows plants to create their own sustenance using sunlight to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic compounds. Algae and many types of bacteria can also feed themselves in this manner. Referred to as photoautotrophs, the organisms use photosynthesis to produce their own food and as a result, release oxygen as a byproduct of the process. Without photosynthesis, all life on Earth that relies on oxygen to survive would perish.
The process is initiated by the absorption of energy attained from sunlight. Proteins are present in organisms inside organelles called chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll, and they begin the absorption process. Chloroplasts are made up of membranes (inner and outer), the space between the membranes known as the intermembrane space, stroma, and thylakoids. Chlorophyll is contained within the membranes of the thylakoids and is what gives plants and algae their green pigment. There are various other pigments aside from chlorophyll, such as carotene and xanthophyll (plants); algae has some different ones such as phycocyanin, fucoxanthin, and phycoerhythrin. The green color of plants is only visible to humans because the chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light, and reflects green light. Photosynthesis happens mostly in the leaves of plants, with very little or none of the reaction occurring in the stems. The structure of a typical leaf includes the epidermis (upper and lower), the mesophyll, vascular bundles (also called veins), and the stomates.
There are two distinct parts of photosynthesis, referred to as the light reaction and the dark reaction. The light reaction takes place in the aforementioned thylakoid membrane and converts light to energy, which is then stored as a compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is quite similar to the building blocks that form human deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
The dark reaction, on the other hand, occurs in the stroma (part of the chloroplast), converting CO2 into sugar. Light is not necessary for the dark reaction, but the ATP created during the light reaction is required. The Calvin Cycle happens during the dark reaction, combining CO2 and ATP to form sugar. During hot weather, especially in the summer months, water evaporates from plants at an increased rate. To combat this, plants will keep their stomates closed, which also means that no CO2 is being absorbed into the leaves. When the CO2 reaches a low enough level, plants can no longer photosynthesize, causing them to turn dormant and brown.
The Z scheme, so named because of it's pattern when drawn in chart form, is complex. Photons are absorbed through sunlight, and once a chlorophyll molecule attains enough energy, an electron is transferred to another molecule. This is known as an electron transport chain. This process can leave plants with an electron deficit, which requires an outside source of electrons. Through water photolysis, water is oxidized and their electrons are used to further the process.
What does all of this mean? Photosynthesis occurs in four stages: in the main stage, energy is transferred to chlorophyll; in the second, electrons are transferred; in the third, electrons are transported along the electron transport chain (to include the synthesis of ATP); in the final stage, carbon is fixated and the oxygen byproduct is released. There are also three main factors that affect photosynthesis. The first is light intensity (irradiance) and wavelength, affecting the light reaction. When CO2 levels and temperature are constant, the photosynthesis rate is proportional to the intensity of light present. It can be sped up or slowed down depending on light. The second factor is CO2 concentration, affecting the dark reaction. Since CO2 is necessary for the synthesis of sugar, the rate of photosynthesis is affected by how much is present. The third factor is temperature. Up to a certain point, the rate of photosynthesis is increased when the temperature is raised. If it climbs too high, however, photosynthesis will stop completely.
Photosynthesis can be summed up briefly. Sunlight is absorbed by molecules present inside leaves and algae. It is then combined by a chemical reaction with CO2 to produce sugar, which is used for food. A byproduct of the absorption of carbon is that plants off gas oxygen, which is necessary for most organisms on the planet to survive. We then inhale the oxygen, and as a byproduct of respiration, exhale CO2. The process begins again, with the plants helping to clean CO2 from the air, and replacing it with oxygen. So, quite simply, if it wasn't for plants and algae, we would all perish.
What is Photosynthesis? - Photosynthesis lecture from the South Caroline Algal Ecology Laboratory.
Photosynthesis Reactions - Information & diagram of photosynthesis reactions.
Online Biology Book - Detailed description of photosynthesis with accompanying pictures.
An Introduction to Photosynthesis and Its Applications - In depth information about photosynthesis from Arizona State University.
Center for Bioenergy & Photosynthesis - Provides additional links and resources about photosynthesis.
Traditionally, there are two main groups of Angiosperms or flowering plants – Monocotyledons ( Liliopsida ) and Dicotyledons ( Magnoliopsida ). Those flowering plants or Angiosperms which have an embryo with one seed leaf or cotyledon are known as Monocotyledons or Monocots ; like coconut and mango. The other group of the Angiosperms or flowering plants is Dicotyledons or Dicots and its seed comprises of two cotyledons or embryonic leaves; like gram and bean.
History and Definition
Monocotyledons derived its name from the botanical name, “ Monocotyledones ” which means having a single embryonic leaf or cotyledon in their seeds. Around 59,300 monocot species exist in this world with more than 20,000 species belonging to the orchids group alone. Some 100 to 120 million years ago, monocots developed from a sole ancestor. According to recent research, dicots are elder than monocots and probably monocots branched off from dicots and evolved. Cotyledons help in absorbing the nutrients in the seed till the seedling is capable of producing its original true leaves and start the process of photosynthesis.
Distinguishing Features
The basis of classifying the two categories of the angiosperms is the number of cotyledons, which is found in the embryo and in case of monocots , there is only one. The other distinguishing features of Monocotyledons include narrow leaves with smooth edges and numerous parallel veins. In monocots , the flowers comprise of such floral parts which are usually three or divisible by three. The soft or hollow stems comprise of vascular bundles that are scattered throughout the stem, especially near the stem periphery. Usually, in the monocot’s pollen, a single pore is situated in the outer layer. In monocots , the budding roots mature from the stem. Generally, they have a tap root system. Prop roots grow from the stem’s nodes and usually remain clustered near the stem’s bottom.
Characteristics
Vegetative - Primarily, monocots are herbaceous and below 10% of the species are woody-stemmed. Usually, the woody monocots are an evidence of the class’s characteristic vascular cambium and comprises of an un -branched stem with a circlet of big leaves. Mostly, the leaves are veined in a parallel manner. The system of the mature root is adventitious and stem’s vascular bundles are generally borne or scattered in two or more rings. The most important characteristic is the presence of a single cotyledon.
Reproductive - Monocotyledons are those flowering plants in which the seeds reside within the protective ovary, that is, the fruit. The seeds are produced when they are allowed to grow sufficiently long. Like in case of grass, if it is allowed to grow for a certain period of time, it will grow the necessary parts and then will produce the seeds.
Parts of the Flower
The flower parts become the basis of distinction between the monocots and dicots . Flowers are considered to be the angiosperm’s sex organs. The flowers contain and give rise to both the immobile female gametophyte generation and the mobile male gametophyte generation, which is the pollen. The flower’s layered parts or whorls comprises of the sepal, stamen, petal and carpel and are mainly modified leaves. In a flower, the outermost ring of leaf-like or petal-like whorl is the sepal, which protects the bud. The male portion is the stamen or filament in which the pollen is stored and produced. A flower’s characteristic glitzy leaf-like portion is known as petal which helps in attracting the flying insects. The female portion is the carpel which comprises of the structure that holds the eggs or plant’s female gametes.
Examples of Plants
Monocots of grass family ( Poaceae ) include examples like rice, corn, wheat, barley, etc. for human consumption and for animal consumption, lawn grasses like fescue , bluegrass, etc. are used. Examples of monocots used in the kitchen are onions, garlic, ginger, whereas, fruits like pineapples, mango, banana and palms like oil palms, dates and coconuts are used in everyday life. In case of flowers, monocots include daffodils, bluebells, tulips, lilies, orchids, etc. In fact, Orchids form a major chunk of monocots’ species and the Orchid family ( Orchidaceae ) include monocots like Laelia , Anguloa , Oncidium , etc. Examples of monocots of economical importance include bamboo, reed, sugarcane and many more.
History and Definition
Dicotyledons or the Dicots group comprises of around 199,350 species of herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees. In fact, it forms 5% of the plants in the world. The embryo produces the ‘seed leaves’, also known as the cotyledons. Till the seedling is capable of producing its original leaves and begins the process of photosynthesis, it provides nutrients to the seed. The six sub-classes of Dicotyledons are the primitive Hamamelidae and Magnoliidae ; the distinctive offshoot, Caryophyllidae and the three relatively advanced groups, Rosidae , Dilleniidae and Asteridae . Enormous variety is exhibited by the mature Dicotyledon plant’s manner and size of growth, from forest tree to small herb.
Distinguishing Features
The main distinguishing feature of Dicotyledons is the number of cotyledons or embryonic leaves. The seeds of dicot plants comprises of two cotyledons which emerges above the soil when the germination of the seed takes place and forms the new plant’s first two leaves. The vascular bundles in the dicot plant’s stem comprises of the phloem and xylem. Around the stem’s edge, the vascular bundles are placed in a circular manner. While the phloem transports food from the leaves to the storage organs, the xylem transports minerals and water from plant’s other parts to the root. In dicots , the veins of the leaves are webbed or netted on the leaf’s whole surface and forms a branched pattern. In dicots , the flower parts are generally there in fives or fours ( pentamerous or tetramerous ) and there are three pores or furrows in the pollen. The roots grow from the radicle and are branched and fibrous that forms an intense network of root system. Due to the production of fresh leaf-bearing branches each season, an increase in the leaf-area is associated with the increase in the diameter of root and stem.
Characteristics
Vegetative - The fact that a large chunk of the dicots are woody-stemmed gives the evidence of a vascular cambium in the class. Dicots also comprises of annuals, vines, aquatics, saprotrophs , biennals , epiphytes and parasites. Enclosing the pith, the stem’s vascular bundles are borne in a ring. Except for some recognized primitive aquatic or woody families, vessel elements are present in all the dicots . In some cases, the cotyledons can also be 1, 3 or 4. The leaves are usually net veined. During the germination of the seed, the embryo is covered by smaller or larger foodstuff amount ( endosperm ) that provides nourishment till the seedling is developed. During the process of germination, the radicle grows out first and then the short stem or ‘hypocotyl’ grows above the ground. After the stem-bud, the stem, branches, leaves and proper root system is formed. An adult dicot plant’s manner and size of growth varies immensely.
Reproductive - In dicots , the arrangement of the floral paths, especially the perianth is done in a spiral manner or in definite numbers, such as 5. In some cases, the floral paths are also arranged in numbers of 3 and 4. Except for some acknowledged and ancient dicot families, the pollen is usually three pored.
Parts of Flower
In dicots , the flower parts are usually arranged in multiples of five or five. Generally, the arrangement comprises of five sepals, ten stamens, five petals and five carpels. The dicots range widely, from few stamens or carpels in willows to the multiple stamens in the elaborate trees. Dicots comprise of four or five petals or multiples of them to attract the insects to the flower’s fertile parts, the perianth , for the sole purpose of pollination. During the maturing and development of the flower, it is protected by the leaf-like bracts called the sepals. The flower’s male parts or stamens are found in fives or fours and consists of anther and filament. The stalk that holds up the anther is the filament and the fertile part where the pollen is produced and released through pores or slits is the anther. The female parts or carpels comprises of style, stigma, ovule and ovary. In dicots , they are found in fives or fours and are considered to be flowers’ innermost part. It contains an egg and has a gap in the outer covering to enable the tube from the pollen grain deliver a sperm cell.
Examples of Plants
Dicot plants include a wide variety of vegetable plants, fruit trees, broad leaf trees and ornamental flowering plants. The examples of dicot plants commonly seen in the kitchen are grapes, tomatoes, strawberries, peas, mustard, coriander, peanuts, grams, beans, potatoes and lentils. The ones commonly found in the garden are roses, pansies, sunflowers, asters, magnolia, marigolds, buttercups and dandelions. The other varieties include maple, squash and oak.
Many people think that gardening is a pastime that is only practiced by adults. Nonetheless, it can be a great activity for kids as well. Gardening can be beneficial to children in many ways. Other than giving them an opportunity to have fun in the outdoors; it can also enhance their appreciation for nature and increase their knowledge of agriculture and science. Parents who do gardening with their kids will also find that the activity promotes family bonding.
Now, children, parents, and teachers can find a lot of educational materials that are related to gardening on the Internet. There are websites that provide information or tutorials on the basics of gardening for kids. Parents can find useful tips and interesting activities that can help them teach their children about various methods of gardening, and educators can find ideas for implementing gardening lessons in schools. Here is a list of websites that offer excellent educational materials on gardening:
For Parents
For Teachers
For Kids
An herb is defined as a plant that is valued for scent, flavor, medicinal and other qualities. They are used in the kitchen for cooking, for spiritual purposes and as medicines; some herbs can even be used for pest control as a natural method. When comparing medicinal herbs with culinary herbs the general usage differs between the two. In spiritual or medicinal use, all parts of the plants can be used as “herbs” including the flowers, roots, leaves, resin, root bark, seeds, berries and inner bark. There are many different reasons people decide to grow herbs whether it is strictly for the aesthetic beauty or for reasons such as herbal or culinary uses. Regardless of the reason, the herbs can easily be grown outside or inside. This article provides you with detailed information on herbs and herb gardening.
Guides
When speaking in terms of culinary uses, the word “herb” refers to the actual leaves of the plant; these leaves can be either dried or fresh. Other parts of the same plant, such as the seed, fruit, bark, root and berries are considered the spices of the plant and are usually in dried form. Culinary herbs differ from vegetables because they are used in smaller quantities and are used for flavor instead of providing actual substance.
Medicinal herbs have effects on the body because of the phytochemicals the plants contain. The medicinal benefits of herbs are quoted and recorded throughout history. It is vital that you understand that some herbs can be toxic if consumed in large amounts and some may be considered a culinary spice if consumed in small quantities. An example would be extract from kava or St. John’s Wort; the extract from these herbs are used to relieve stress and depression, but can cause serious damage because of toxic overload if taken in large quantities.
Sacred herbs are used with a variety of religions as holy plants. They may be used to induce spiritual experiences in some Native American cultures for rites of passage. Cedar and white sage are used by Cherokee Native Americans for smudging and spiritual cleansing. Frankincense and myrrh are used in Christianity, the neem tree is used by the Tamils and tulsi, or holy basil, is used in Hinduism.
Remedies and Medicinal Uses
There are a number of herbs and plants that are used for medicinal purposes and as home remedies for a variety of medical conditions. Plants have been used for this purpose for years, predating any written human history. When speaking in terms of written history, the Sumerians used thyme, laurel and caraway; and Ancient Egyptians used a number of plants for medicinal purposes such as garlic, castor oil, opium, indigo, mint, coriander and other herb as they saw fit. Modern society still adopts this practice of herbal medicine to treat disease, mainly with a focus in countries that are not industrialized.
Some examples of the use of herbs for remedies and medicinal purposes include: aloe vera for the healing of wounds and burns, artichoke to help reduce the production of cholesterol, cranberry for urinary tract infections and garlic as an antibiotic and cholesterol reducer. Peppermint oil has been used for irritable bowel syndrome, milk thistle is used as a liver tonic, honey as a wound healer and cholesterol reducer and oregano on bacteria that is resistant to multiple drugs.
Culinary Arts and Cooking
When used in the culinary arts and cooking, herbs are used in insignificant quantities to add coloring and flavoring to the dish it is used with. The herbs that are used are mostly of the botanical origin. Some of the herbs that are used in the culinary arts include basil, bay leaf, cinnamon, chives and cayenne pepper. Other culinary herbs include cilantro, chipotle, dill, fennel, ginger, garlic, jasmine, nutmeg, oregano, pepper, paprika, parsley and rosemary.
Gardening
Herb gardens should be set up in an area without other types of plants around. You can designate a specific area outside in your garden to grow these herbs or you can opt to grow them in an area in your home, such as the kitchen. It is helpful to grow your herbs depending on their use and group them together. Examples include annual culinary herbs, such as summer savory, dill and basil; perennial culinary herbs, such as tarragon, thyme, rosemary and mint; herbs used for potpourri, such as lemon verbena and lavender; herbs used for tea such as mint, lemon verbena, bergamot and chamomile; and herbs used for other purposes such as feverfew for pest control and stevia for sweetening.
The life cycle of a flower includes several important stages. First, germination occurs when a seed starts to grow beneath the ground. Roots emerge from the seed while a shoot appears above ground. Water and light nourish the shoot helping it to develop into a flower. The life cycle continues when the flower receives the pollen that allows fertilization to take place. Soon the seeds will disperse to different locations and grow into flowers. Each of these stages is a necessary part of a flower's life cycle.
Germination
In this stage of a plant's life cycle, a seed starts to grow. With the help of water, a seed begins to develop its roots. The roots pop out of the seed and grow downward. Root growth is an important part of the process of germination because they hold a seed in place underground. As a seed continues to germinate, a shoot develops and pokes up through the ground. Once a shoot has sprouted up through the earth, it receives the light and water it needs to grow. Leaves and petals will soon begin to develop. Now, the little shoot is well on its way to growing into a flower.
Fertilization
In order to understand the process of fertilization in a flower's life cycle, it's helpful to know some of the parts of a flower. First, there's the stamen, which is the male part of the flower. The area located at the top of a flower's stamen is its anther. Pollen is created in a flower's anthers. The female part of a flower is known as its stigma. Pollen travels from one flower's anther and lands on the stigma of another flower. The movement of the pollen is called pollination. Insects such as bees and butterflies help with the process of pollination. For instance, a bee may visit one flower and carry pollen on its body to the next flower. Birds, moths, bats, and even rodents are other animals that help in the pollination process. Once the pollen reaches a flower's stigma, it moves down through the style toward the ovules where the egg is stored. When the pollen reaches the ovules, fertilization takes place. The ovules will begin to grow into seeds.
Reproduction
The seed is the beginning stage of a flower. The process of seed dispersal is necessary for new flowers to grow in other places. There are a number of ways that seeds are dispersed, or spread, to other areas where flowers can grow. Animals, water, the wind, and explosion all play a part in the seed dispersal process. First, if a bird eats a berry or a piece of fruit the seeds work their way through the animal's digestive system. When the bird eliminates its waste the seeds end up in different areas. They are then free to grow in their new environment. Sometimes a seed will travel in the fur or feathers of an animal. When the animal moves or flies the seed drops to the ground and begins to grow in its new location.
Seeds can also travel by streams and other waterways to take root in different places. Plants that live in watery environments are likely to have seeds that can travel easily in water. In addition, seeds are often picked up by the wind and carried to a new area where they can grow. A dandelion is one example of a plant with seeds that travel on the wind.
Finally, seed dispersal also takes place when a dried pod explodes sending seeds out into nature. Depending upon the force of the explosion, a seedpod can deliver seeds several feet away. The process of seed dispersal ensures that flowers grow in a variety of places where they can receive an adequate amount of water and light.
Resources
For more information on the life cycle of a flower, please visit:
We are surrounded by plant life of all kinds. It is both beautiful and much of it we make part of our diet, but there are also potential dangers in plants. While chewing on a wild chive or plucking a grape into our mouth from a bush may be tasty, it is risky to taste test other plants that may look appetizing. Many plants are either partially or entirely poisonous. These could be plants, trees or shrubs growing in your own backyard, so it is important to know what you are dealing with. Knowing what is growing around you can save your life. The following is a list of plants that can be harmful to humans, along with the parts of the plant that are harmful and symptoms of each specific poison.
HUMANS
Hyacinth, Narcissus, Daffodil
• Poisonous bulb
• Diarrhea, nausea and vomiting-can be fatal
Oleander
• Extremely poisonous leaves and branches
• Causes severe digestive problems; affects the heart and can cause death.
Dumb Cane, Elephant Ear
• Entire Plant poisonous
• Causes irritation and an intense burning of the tongue and mouth; can cause tongue to swell, which could block the flow of air through the throat.
Rosary Pea, Castor Bean
• Fatally poisonous seeds
• A lethal dose is one to two Castor beans and one Rosary pea can cause death.
Larkspur
• Young plants and seeds are poisonous
• Nervous excitement, depression and digestive upset, could cause death.
Monkshood
• Poisonous roots
• Nervous excitement and an upset of the digestive system.
Autumn Crocus, Star of Bethlehem
• Poisonous bulbs
• Nervousness and vomiting.
Lily-of-the-Valley
• The leaves and flowers are poisonous
• Causes an irregular pulse and heartbeat, which normally is accompanied by mental confusion and an upset digestive system.
Iris
• The Underground stems
• May cause an upset digestive system.
Foxglove
• The leaves are poisonous
• If consumed in great amounts it can cause an irregular heartbeat and pulse that can be dangerous. Digestive upset and confusion usually accompany this and it can be fatal.
Bleeding Heart
• The roots and foliage are poisonous
• Possibly dangerous in large amounts and has been known to kill cattle.
Rhubarb
• The leaf blade is poisonous.
• Can cause death when large amounts of the leaves are consumed, causes convulsions and coma, which quickly leads to death.
Daphne
• The berries are poisonous
• Only a few berries can kill a child.
Wisteria
• The pods and seeds are poisonous
• Anything from mild to severe upset of the digestion system, children are often poisoned by Wisteria.
Golden Chain
• Seed capsules that are shaped like beans
• Excitability, staggering, convulsions and coma occur with severe poisoning. Can be fatal.
Laurels, Rhododendrons, Azaleas
• The entire plant is poisonous
• Fatal. Will cause depression and difficulty breathing. Also, causes nausea and vomiting leading to prostration and coma.
Jasmine
• The berries are poisonous
• Fatal. Causes digestive issues and symptoms of nervousness.
Red Sage
• Poisonous green berries
• Fatal. Lungs, kidneys, the heart and nervous system are all affected. This plant grows in moderate climates and the southern region of the United States.
Yew
• The foliage and berries are poisonous
• Fatal. The foliage of the plant is more poisonous than the berries are and death is normally sudden, having no real symptoms.
Wild and cultivated cherries
• The foliage and branches are poisonous
• Fatal. When eaten will release cyanide that commonly causes prostration, excitement, gasping for air.
Oaks
• Acorns and foliage
• Depending on intake, the symptoms can take from days to weeks to appear. If large amounts are ingested the kidneys could be affected.
Elderberry
• The entire plant is poisonous
• The plant can cause nausea and digestive issues if even put to the mouth, which is often done by children.
Black Locust
• The Bark, sprouts and foliage are poisonous
• After chewing the seeds and bark, children have experienced depression, weakness and nausea.
Jack-in-the-Pulpit
• The entire plant is poisonous
• This plant has small crystals of calcium oxalate that are needle shaped. When eaten they cause an intense burning irritation of the tongue and mouth.
Moonseed
• The berries are poisonous
• Consuming the blue or purple colored grape like fruit can be fatal.
Mayapple
• The Apple, foliage and roots are poisonous
• The apples, which are often eaten by children may cause diarrhea. The rest of the plant, especially the roots, has a minimum of sixteen toxins
Mistletoe
• The berries are poisonous
• Fatal to both adults and children if eaten.
Water Hemlock
• The entire plant is poisonous
• Fatal with violent, painful convulsions that have been known to kill people.
Buttercups
• The entire plant is poisonous
• The plants juices could injure the digestive system severely.
Nightshade
• The entire plant is poisonous, especially the berries.
• Fatal. When ingested will cause nervousness and intense digestive issues.
Poison Hemlock
• The entire plant is poisonous
• The plant looks like a carrot, but is fatal.
Jimson Weed (Thorn Apple)
• The entire plant is poisonous
• Has proven fatal. Causes distorted vision, delirium, extreme thirst, incoherence and coma.
ANIMALS
While the plants mentioned above are poisonous to humans, there are other members of our families we must think about too. They are our furry friends, who often like to chew and munch on whatever plants are growing both inside and outside our homes. Many of the plants we think of as harmless, can be devastating to our pets. Poisonous plants can affect your pet’s skin or their digestive systems. If you are concerned that your pet has eaten something it shouldn’t have, be sure to seek a veterinarian’s care immediately. As no list can be absolutely complete, before bringing new plants into your home or yard that the pet shares, check to make sure that they are save for your pet. The following is a list of plants that can be harmful to animals, along with the parts of the plant that are harmful and symptoms of each specific poison.
Azalea
• The entire plant is slightly poisonous
• Can cause stomach pain, abnormal rhythm and rate of the heart, as well as convulsions, coma and possible death.
Bird of Paradise
• The fruit and seeds of this plant are poisonous
Creeping Charlie
• The entire plant is poisonous
• Can cause drooling and sweating, but isn’t usually fatal.
Castor Bean
• All parts of this plant are poisonous, but if chewed, especially the seeds.
• Extremely poisonous. Causes excessive thirst, trouble breathing, dehydration, tenesmus, weakness, bloody diarrhea, twitching muscles, convulsions and coma.
Choke Cherry
• The Leaves, seed pits, stems, and bark are poisonous
• Extremely poisonous.
Daphne
• The Berries, bark, and leaves are poisonous
Easter Lily
• All parts of this plant are poisonous
• Extremely poisonous. Within two hours there may be vomiting and depression. A single leaf can cause kidney failure
English Ivy
• The leaves and berries are poisonous
• Extremely poisonous. Causes diarrhea, stomach upset, breathing issues, coma and death.
Foxglove
• The Leaves, seeds, and flowers are slightly poisonous
Glacier Ivy
• The leaves and berries are poisonous
Heartleaf
• All parts of this plant are poisonous
Hemlock, Water
• All parts of this plant are poisonous including roots
• Extremely poisonous. Causes restlessness, frothing at the mouth, dilated pupils, muscles spasms, convulsions and a death, which can occur from fifteen minutes to two hours.
Hyacinth
• The bulbs, leaves and flowers are poisonous
• Not usually fatal. Symptoms are colic, diarrhea and vomiting.
Hydrangea
• The leaves and buds are poisonous
• Causes inflammation and irritation of the digestive system, along with bloody diarrhea.
Jerusalem Cherry
• All parts of this plant are poisonous, including unripe fruit
Johnsongrass
• The Leaves and stems are poisonous, especially in young plants.
• Extremely poisonous. Causes severe anxiety, breathing issues, convulsions, coma and death. An antidote is available.
Jimson Weed
• All parts of this plant are poisonous
• Extremely poisonous. Rapid pulse and brething. Dilated pupils, nervousness, restlessness, twitching, frequent urinating and diarrhea, as well as depression, weak pulse, loss of weight, weak pulse, convulsions, coma and finally death.
Jonquil
• The bulbs are poisonous
Lantana
• The leaves and berries are poisonous
• Extremely poisonous. Death can occur within two to four days in severe cases. Causes weakness, sluggishness and bloody diarrhea.
Mandrake
• The Roots, foliage and unripe fruit are poisonous
Mistletoe
• The berries are poisonous
Nightshade
• All parts of this plant are poisonous
• Extremely poisonous. Causes severe diarrhea, drowsiness, dilated pupils, trembling, numbness, difficulty breathing, hallucinations, runny nose, rapid heartbeat and heart rate, weak pulse, uncoordination, severe shaking or paralysis in the rear legs, bloating and can be fatal.
Nephthytis, Arrowhead Vine
• All parts of this plant are poisonous
Oats
• Causes skin irritation, breathing difficulties, convulsions, paralysis and rarely death.
Pigweed, Redroot
• The Leaves, stems and roots are poisonous.
• Extremely poisonous. Causes trembling, breathing issues, weakness, coma and death.
Poinsettia
• The leaves and flowers are poisonous
• This plant is not deadly, but can cause mouth, skin, stomach and eye irritation.
Pokeweed, Inkberry
• All parts of this plant are poisonous
• Moderately poisonous. Causes diarrhea, colic, bloody stool, and will rarely cause anemia or death.
Rhubarb
• The leaves are poisonous
• Moderately poisonous. Causes weakness, diarrhea, breathing issues, thirst with increased urination and death.
Yew, English and Japanese
• All parts of this plant are poisonous
• Extremely poisonous. Causes trembling, breathing issues, weakness, heart problems, upset stomach and sudden death.
RESOURCES
For more information on poisonous plants, visit these resources:
Gardening is an ideal way to spend time outdoors and also attain some form of physical activity. In addition, gardening provides people with the chance to improve the look of their community and grow vegetables and fruits. Even if you are a veteran gardener, being safe while gardening is a high priority. Staying safe will ensure that gardening enthusiasts are able to enjoy their hobby for a longer period of time.
Knees, Back & Elbows
Wearing proper clothing to protect areas of your body like the elbows and knees is essential to safe gardening. This protection from the proper clothing is meant not just against the sun, the insects, or lawn and garden products, but also from lawn care equipment. Wearing long sleeves and long pants to protect your elbows and knees from diseases that are caused by ticks and mosquitoes is essential. Ticks, for instance, may carry lyme disease. If gardeners are not wearing long sleeves and pants, their exposed elbows and knees are perfect target areas for tick bites. Lime disease manifests itself through a bulls-eye rash, joint pains, headache, and fever.
Hands, Feet, & Wrists
Wearing gloves will shield both your hands and your wrists from potential cuts, skin irritations, and even certain types of contaminants. Feet ought to be protected also by way of wearing sturdy boots. Gardens are places where wires and other sharp objects abound, and these can puncture and cut your soles open. Sharp objects like rusty nails may be lying around, and accidentally stepping on one may lead to serious problems like tetanus. Gardeners must also exercise caution around pieces of machinery like lawnmowers since common injuries caused by lawnmowers include hand and feet injuries. Usual injuries that involve lawnmowers include bone fractures and even open wounds to both the hands and the feet.
Sun & Skin Protection
People who are tending to their gardens are at risk for sunburn and, therefore, skin cancer. Protecting skin from the sun is a fundamental preoccupation to have all year round and in many other places besides just the beach, in the summer. In order to protect their skin from the sun’s harmful rays, when gardening, people ought to put on hats that have a wide brim, shirts with long sleeves, sunglasses, and also sunscreen with SPF 15 or higher. Since the hours of 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. (daylight savings time) are the most risky for exposure to ultraviolet rays, gardeners may want to be aware of this fact and therefore avoid spending too much time in the garden during the aforementioned hours, especially in the spring and summer.
Bugs & Pests
Bugs and pests present themselves in any garden situation, and the problem with regards to these insects is that they may transmit diseases to gardeners if they bite them. Mosquitoes and ticks, in particular, are two kinds of garden insects that pose a threat to gardeners who do not take the necessary precautions. Mosquitoes may carry with them the West Nile Virus as well as other diseases, and the West Nile Virus can bring about serious illness, if not even fatal sickness. Gardeners should protect themselves from mosquitoes by utilizing mosquito repellent, dressing in clothing that features long sleeves and pants to deny mosquitoes easily accessible areas to bite, and also to empty standing water in the garden, so mosquitoes can’t lay their eggs there. Ticks can also be a problem because of their ability to carry around lime disease, which they can transmit to gardeners when they bite them. To protect themselves against ticks, gardeners should spray their clothes with insect repellent that contains DEET and also wear long sleeves and long pants.
Machinery, Equipment & Chemicals
Many accidents and injuries that occur in a garden relate to the machinery and equipment that gardeners use. One immediate way that gardeners can cut down on the hazards of machine- and equipment-related injuries is to design their gardens so that lifting and high maintenance are not required so much. If you have to work machinery like lawnmowers or hedge trimmers, be sure to wear safety equipment like goggles, steel toe-capped toes, gloves, and hard hats. Also be sure to tuck in all clothing when operating heavy machinery like the aforementioned, because clothing could get caught in the machines and cause injury. With regards to chemicals, gardeners can stay safe when handling them by making sure to follow all warning labels and instructions on their labels. Since children are also more likely to tamper with chemical bottles and containers, prevent that situation from occurring by storing them in a safe place where they are not that likely to reach them.
Gardening Safety for Kids
While most injuries and accidents in gardens involve adults, a significant fraction of those also include children, but this, too, is preventable. An easy action gardeners can take immediately is to keep all hedges and borders in their gardens trimmed, so that smaller children don’t get their clothes entangled on them or their faces pricked by them. Educating children about the perils of eating certain plants that are not healthy for them is recommended, as is educating them about roses or holly, whose sharp and pointy thorns and leaves can present a safety hazard for especially smaller kids. If children want to take their toys or climbing equipment out into the garden, do not allow them to place them too near concrete walls or large bushes, as children may either fall into or against these objects.
Mycology is the branch of science that studies fungi. Fungi are living entities that, while not related to plants, resemble plants in that they have cell walls; they are distinguished from plants because they lack chlorophyll. There are millions of fungi varieties and more than 198,000 different species of fungi. Mushrooms are the most well-known variety of fungi; however, in addition to mushrooms, mycologists study yeast, mold, filamentous fungi and dimorphic fungi, such as mycelium. Such research helps identify pathogenic diseases caused by fungi that can infect humans, animals, and our food supply. Mycologists study how such diseases can be cured and even how medicines can be made using fungi.
Genetic & Biomedical properties
Fungi exists in every area of the globe, able to thrive in dirt, air and water. As parasites, they can also thrive on human and animal hosts. Some are large enough to see with the unaided eye, while others require extreme magnification to detect. There are so many different types that most have never even been discovered.
Despite their abundance and diversity, fungi all share a few characteristics. For instance, all fungi are heterotrophic, meaning they get their food through absorption. Fungi are also all saprophytic, which means than can cause decay and breakdown of anything organic by releasing enzymes. As stated earlier, all fungi have cell walls, these cell walls are made from chitin, a type of carbohydrate. Like humans, fungi store energy through glycogen; scientists theorize that fungi are more closely related to humankind than plants.
In terms of taxonomy, or scientific classification, all fungi belong to the Fungi Kingdom. There are four different Phyla for categorizing fungi: Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Zygomycota, and Mitosporic. Ascomycota, includes fungi that reproduce via an ascus sack while releasing ascopspores. Basidiomycota is the phylum containing fungi that reproduce in a basidium, another type of sack. These fungi use basidiospores for reproduction. Fungi that reproduce by generating zygospores are in the phylum known as Zygomycota. Zygospores allow for a form of reproduction that is asexual. The majority of fungi that cause diseases display no type of sexual reproduction. They are grouped in the Mitosporic Fungi Phylum.
Human Uses
Mycology helps humans in a myriad of ways. This science has shown that fungi can be used in cooking and producing fermented foods; yeast, for example, is widely used to make beer, breads and other dough-based goods. Mushrooms can be used in a variety of salads, soups and pasta dishes. Some mushrooms, such as morels, are considered a delicacy. Pharmaceutical companies also use fungi to develop antibiotic medicines. Fungi are also an important part of some hobbies; mushroom hunting, for example, is a favorite spring pastime for many nature-lovers.
Dangers
More than 200 fungi species are known to contain pathogens that cause illnesses and disease. Sicknesses from fungi can range from simple allergic reaction to infection to fatal poisoning. There are two types of poison possible through mushrooms. Mycotoxicoses is poisoning from toxic food products containing certain mushrooms. Poisoning directly from ingesting mushrooms is known as mycetismus.
Fungus-related infection is the most common danger and occurs when the fungus invades the body tissue of a person or animal and begins to colonize in the bloodstream. The immune systems of most people can fight off fungal infections. However, those with weakened immunity, such as elderly people or those with acquired immunodeficiency disease (AIDS), can become extremely ill and require potent drugs to recover. Some fungal infections can lead to death. Aside from skin infections, such is ringworm; most fungal infections cannot be transmitted from person to person.
As fungi continue to thrive, morph, and potently adapt to obstacles and resistance in their environment, humankind will have a greater need for mycologists. Studying mycology in can be a stepping-stone to a career in research, food processing, pharmaceuticals, or infection control.
Without the plants that provide the food for the world’s population, life could not exist on planet Earth. It is therefore essential for farmers, scientists, and other individuals who work with plants to understand how they can be kept healthy and productive, both to feed people and to maintain a stable and habitable environment. There are many factors that can harm plants, including insects, environmental factors, and pathogens, which are disease-inducing organisms like bacteria, fungi, and more.
Understanding the different plant pathogens and environmental factors that can lead to diseased plants can help everyone do their part to prevent plants from getting diseased and damaged. This guide offers an overview of some of the major causes of plant disease with the goal of helping people know what they can do to preserve the health of the planet.
BIOTIC PLANT DISEASE
Biotic plant diseases are those diseases that are caused by biological plant pathogens. The major biological plant pathogens include bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and plant viruses. Certain plants are especially susceptible to these pathogens, especially when environmental damage caused by flooding, vandalism, lightning, pollution, and other factors weaken plants’ natural defenses against biological invaders. With the exception of nematodes, which are microscopic worms that live in the soil and can damage root systems, these pathogens are usually transmitted via insects, wind, or contact with other diseased plants. Soil treatments, pest management, and other strategies can help lower the odds of disease transmission.
Bacteria
• Atlas of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria — See pictures of bacteria-affected fruits, vegetables, and other plants on this page.
• Bacteria and Plants — Learn all about how bacteria may affect plants in this article from the Virtual Museum of Bacteria.
• Bacterial Leaf Diseases of Foliage Plants — Here is a good, basic introduction to bacteria and their specific effects on plant foliage.
• Bacterial Pathogens in Plants — This is a good, albeit technical, article on various bacterial pathogens that affect plant life.
• Introductory Plant Pathology: Toxins — Some good information on how toxins from plant pathogenic bacteria can be found on this page from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
• Micro: Prokaryotes — Various types of proteobacteria, including those that serve as plant pathogens, are listed and described on this page.
• Phytoplasma Taxonomy — This page from the USDA has some good information on phytoplasma, a bacterial plant pathogen.
• Protein Secretion in Plant Pathogenic Bacteria — This is a good article on how effector proteins from bacterial plant pathogens afflict plants.
• Tiedje Lab: Burkholderia — The specific damage wrought by the bacteria burkholderia is described on this page, along with other information about this bacterial pathogen.
• What are Phytoplasmas? — Some good data on phytoplasmas and their transmission from plant to plant is located here.
Fungi
• Ascomycota — The Tree of Life Web Project hosts this page on a major category of fungi that afflict plants as pathogens.
• Basidiomycota — This is an informative site on another major phylum of the fungi kingdom that can harm plants.
• Biotrophic Plant Pathogens — A professor from the University of Edinburgh has produced this excellent page on plant pathogens that afflict plants without killing them in order to maintain a long lifecycle.
• Choosy Plant Pathogens — This site looks at the fungi from the genus fusarium and the damage they may cause to various plants.
• Fungal Databases — Users can search through many different kinds of plant pathogenic fungi on this site from the United States Department of Agriculture.
• Fungi — Here is a good basic introduction to fungi of all types.
• Fungicides — Information on the various toxins that can be used to control plant pathogenic fungi is detailed on this page.
• Plant Pathogen Barcode: Fungi — The importance of identifying fungi in the study of plant pathology is the subject of this page.
• Professor Michael D. Coffey — This faculty page from a professor at the University of California Riverside also has good, basic information on oomycetes and their role in the environment.
• Virtual Oomycete Demonstration Nursery — Washington State University has this virtual nursery that examines the various effects of oomycetes on plants.
Nematodes
• Biological Control: Nematodes — Cornell University has put together this site on the control of nematodes.
• Keeping Minnesota Free of Potato Cyst Nematodes — Although this page has a lot of specific information for Minnesota, it is an excellent overview of one particularly damaging nematode, the potato cyst nematode.
• Nematodes: Alternative Controls — Alternative methods of managing pests like nematodes can be found on this page.
• Nematodes and Plant Damage — Here on this page, readers will learn all about nematodes and the specific harm they cause to the roots of plants.
• Pests in Gardens and Landscapes: Nematodes — Learn how to manage nematodes in a home garden or landscape on this informative page from the University of California.
• Plant and Insect Parasitic Nematodes — The University of Nebraska-Lincoln hosts this excellent overview page on nematodes.
• Root-Knot Nematode — This is another good page on nematodes and the harm they cause to plants everywhere.
• Soil Biology Primer: Nematodes — The USDA has put together this informative site on nematodes and the main varieties of these worms.
• Soil-Inhabiting Nematodes — On this page from the University of Florida, readers are introduced to nematodes and the destruction they cause.
• Soil Nematodes — This introduction to nematodes includes information on where they are commonly found.
Plant Viruses
• Florida Plant Viruses — This database from the University of Florida contains information on the major plant viruses found in Florida and the Southeastern United States.
• Introduction to Plant Viruses — Get a detailed and thorough introduction to plant viruses by clicking on this link.
• Plant Virus Biodiversity and Ecology — This site details major findings of the Plant Virus Biodiversity and Ecology theme unit of the State of Oklahoma’s Research Infrastructure Improvement.
• Plant Virus Discoveries and HIV Prevention — Here is an excellent article from Purdue University on the possible applications of recent discoveries about plant viruses.
• Plant Virus Ecology Network — The Plant Virus Ecology Network examines the role of ecology in the transmission and control of plant viruses.
• Plant Virus Lecture Notes — An excellent introduction to plant viruses is found in these lecture notes on the subject.
• Plant Virus Transmission from the Insect Point of View — Here is an informative page on how insects transmit viruses from one plant to another.
• Plant Viruses Online — The University of Idaho has put together this resource on the different kinds of plant viruses that exist in the wild.
• Soybean-Insect-Virus Complex — The information in this article on the relationship between plant viruses and insects in Wisconsin soybean plants is applicable to the entire field of plant pathologies and diseases.
• Vectors of Plant Viruses — Here is some important information on the vectors associated with plant viruses.
ABIOTIC PLANT DISEASE
Abiotic plant diseases are those diseases that are not induced by biological organisms. Common non-biological factors that might cause disease include pollution, salt run off from roads that have been salted during the winter, weather effects such as drought, flooding, or lightning, human vandalism, and much more. Efforts to lower pollution and prevent erosion can do much to prevent abiotic plant disease. Abiotic factors can also make plants more susceptible to biotic plant disease, so preventing abiotic influences often lowers the risk of biotic plant pathogens destroying plant life.
Natural
• Abiotic Diseases of Woody Ornamentals — Natural abiotic afflictions are the emphasis of this informational article, but manmade abiotic afflictions are covered as well.
• Abiotic Factsheets — Downloadable fact sheets that describe several natural abiotic plant diseases can be found on the other side of this link.
• Biotic vs. Abiotic — This is a good article with some very basic information on the differences between biotic and abiotic plant afflictions.
• Diagnosing Nutritional Deficiencies — Texas A&M University has put together this helpful guide to diagnosing nutritional deficiencies in plants.
• Solving Abiotic Tree Problems — This listing of abiotic tree problems and their solutions focuses on natural effects but also has some manmade abiotic factors as well.
Manmade
• Abiotic Factors — Information on natural and manmade abiotic disease factors can be found on this page and the few slides that follow it, so just click the forward arrow at the bottom of the site.
• Abiotic Injuries and Disorders of Turfgrass in Georgia — The Abiotic diseases that afflict turfgrass in Georgia also afflict other plants around the country.
• Common Abiotic Plant Problems — This PDF from the Maryland’s Cooperative Extension details common abiotic plant problems and prescribes remedies.
• Lentils and Abiotic Diseases — Common abiotic afflictions of lentils, both natural and manmade ones alike, can also harm other plants.
• Soluble Salt Damage to Roots — The damage that road salts can cause to plants, along with several other abiotic diseases, are analyzed here.